Roman Caerwent's painted peacock 10 May 2007 The Caerwent peacock. Many colours have been used to create the peacock - blues, yellows, greens and reds of varying shades. Excavation at the Roman fortress of Caerleon, 10km (6 miles) from Caerwent, has revealed a range of original pigments. These include red and yellow ochre, as well as a pellet of the rare Egyptian blue. A selection of natural minerals used by the Romans to make pigments. These illustrate the vibrancy of colours available to the Roman wall painters. This reconstruction of the peacock shows how it might have looked when first painted. The pigment is applied to the plaster when it is still wet, becoming fixed to the wall as it dried. This technique is known as fresco painting. Study of a fragile wall painting from Caerwent has revealed some of the influences Romans brought to the lives of native Britons. The Roman conquest brought parts of Wales into contact with the style and sophistication of Imperial Rome. For wealthy Britons this contact offered a chance to share in the lifestyle of the invaders. For craftsmen it offered the prospect of new patrons and greater profits. In the Roman world it was common for the wealthy to have the walls and sometimes the ceilings of their rooms painted with brightly coloured panels, floral motifs, or scenes from mythology. But, before the Roman conquest, wall painting in this style was unknown in Britain - here was a new craft, and one that appears to have been quickly seized upon. It is in the Roman town of Caerwent that we have some of our best evidence for the work of the wall painters. One piece that has attracted particular interest is a painting of a peacock from a late 3rd century AD house at Caerwent excavated in the 1980s. Enough fragments of the peacock have survived to allow its original appearance to be recreated. It would have been painted as a fresco, that is while the plaster was still wet, the colours becoming bonded into the surface as it dried. Many colours have been used to create the peacock - blues, yellows, greens and reds of varying shades. The picture itself is on a white background within a blue frame. While the peacock is itself a work of art, it is the pigments from which it was produced that tell us most about the wide cultural and trade contacts of Roman Britain. For example, the blue pigment is an artificial colour first developed in Egypt but then manufactured in Italy, where a wealthy businessman set up production in the 1st century BC. It was made from heating together a mixture of sand, natron and copper, and was sold around the empire in the form of small balls to be ground up by the painter as required. The bright red in the picture is cinnabar or vermillion (mercuric sulphide) mined in Sisapo, Spain and distributed from Rome. Trade in the pigment was so lucrative that the government had to fix its price to stop it rising. It has only been identified on 20-30 sites in Britain - an indication of its rarity. Not all the pigments were imported from overseas - some of the red ochre in the peacock was probably mined locally, possibly in the Forest of Dean. However, the presence of the exotic pigments demonstrates a lot more than just artistic taste. They would have been a statement to anyone who visited the house with the painted peacock, that its owners were both aware of and able to afford the luxuries that came with a place in the Roman Empire. Background Reading Caerwent Roman Town by R. J. Brewer, Published by Cadw (2006) Wall-painting in Roman Britain by N. Davey and R. Ling. Published by the Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies (1981).
Caerleon - City of the Legion 9 May 2007 Plan of Caerleon Roman fortress. Marble inscription, probably from the south-west gate at Caerleon. Reconstruction of the south-west gate, Caerleon. Reconstruction of the Roman fortress baths (Caerleon) in about AD80. Finds from the excavations at Caerleon are on display at the Roman Legionary Museum, Caerleon. Home to Rome's 2nd Augustan Legion for over two centuries, Caerleon is the best preserved Roman fortress in Wales. Caerleon (Newport) is the only permanent Roman base within the borders of modern Wales. It was founded in AD 74 or 75, and used by the Second Augustan Legion, which had been stationed in various parts of southern Britain since the Roman invasion of AD43. Caerleon remained the headquarters of the Second Augustan Legion for more than 200 years. The fortress was known to the Romans as Isca, taking its name from the nearby River Usk. Excavations at Caerleon since the 1920s have allowed us to build up a good understanding of the fortress. The site The fortress is a rectangular enclosure 490m by 418m (535 × 457 yards) giving an area of 20.5ha (50 acres). To the south-west lie a parade-ground and an amphitheatre and, beyond, various buildings of a civilian settlement have been found. The defences were first built in earth and timber but were replaced in stone about AD 100. At the centre of the fortress, beneath the present parish church, was the headquarters building (principia) and next to it the commanding officer’s house. Remains of the fortress baths (the baths are now in the care of Cadw, who have restored them as a visitor attraction), a hospital, officers’ houses and various workshops have also been found. But over half the area would have contained barrack blocks to house the ordinary soldiers – over 5,000 of them. Most of these buildings were first constructed in wood; they were gradually rebuilt in stone from the 2nd century onwards. Activity at the fortress appears to have been at its peak at the close of the first and beginning of the 2nd century. After this the legion was involved in the building of Hadrian’s Wall across northern England. During the reign of Antoninus Pius (AD 138–161) the occupation of Caerleon decreased dramatically, probably indicating a more major commitment to the north. Around AD 300 the legion left Caerleon for good, with many of the main fortress buildings being demolished. This is probably related to the seizure of power in Britain by Carausius and Allectus (AD 287–96) and their need to defend the south of England from expected invasion by the official emperors Diocletian and Constantius. Some buildings at Caerleon were certainly in use up to the mid 4th century and some streets were resurfaced after AD 346–8, but post-350 coins are sparse, suggesting little activity on the site after this date. By AD 1188, when Gerald of Wales visited the fortress, it had been reduced to a stately ruin.
Gelligaer Roman fort 9 May 2007 Roman Military network John Ward, Curator of Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery (1893-1912) and first Keeper of Archaeology in the National Museum of Wales (1912-14). For over 40 years Gelligaer was a cornerstone of the Roman military network that controlled south-east Wales. The fort at Gelligaer is sited on a ridge between the Taff and Rhymney valleys. It commands an extensive view of this upland region, which was heavily wooded in Roman times. The fort, constructed in stone, is almost square and occupies an area of 1.4ha (3.5 acres), making it one of the smallest Roman forts in Wales. Initial excavations Building inscription from the south-east gateway. The site was explored in 1899-1901 by the Cardiff Naturalists' Society and then by John Ward, Curator of Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery, who undertook further excavations outside the fort between 1908 and 1913. The results established that the site was a Roman fort garrisoned by a cohors quingenaria (an auxiliary infantry unit of 500 men. The auxiliary infantry who garrisoned Gelligaer would have worn a simple mail shirt over a tunic, perhaps with trousers of wool or leather, and helmet. They would have carried a flat oval shield and been equipped with sword, dagger and stabbing-spear.) The fort was defended by a wide outer ditch and an earth rampart faced on both sides by a stone wall. There were corner and interval towers and four double-arched gateways. The impressive headquarters building stood at the centre of the fort and next to it lay the residence of the unit's commander. A workshop with a yard and two granaries completed the central range of buildings. The men lived in six barrack blocks, one for each century of 80 men and their centurion. Other buildings within the fort were probably used for stores and a stable for the baggage animals belonging to the unit. Outside the fort on the south-east side was a walled extension containing a bathhouse, where the soldiers could relax when off duty. Attached to the fort was the parade ground, used for drill, weapons training and religious festivals. Roman conquest Model of the stone fort at Gelligaer in the early 2nd century AD. The stone fort was not the first military base at Gelligaer. A large earthwork to the north-west was an earlier earth and timber fort, probably built at the time of the Roman conquest of Wales in AD74-8. It was replaced by the smaller stone fort sometime between AD103-111. We know this date because of the inscription from the south-east gateway was found during the excavations. It records the construction of the fort between AD103 and 111 during the reign of the Emperor Trajan. The text reads: "For the Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajan Augustus, conqueror of Germany, conqueror of Dacia, son of the deified Nerva, High Priest, with Tribunician Power, father of his country, five times Consul, four times acclaimed Imperator, (the Second Augustan Legion [built this])." Native rebellions Excavation of the tile kiln at Gelligaer in 1913. Large quantities of brick and tile would have been needed during the construction of the fort. The forts at Gelligaer were part of a military network across Wales which prevented any native rebellion. Gelligaer's nearest neighbours were forts at Pen-y-Darren to the north and Caerphilly to the south. Recent research indicates that the garrison was probably withdrawn at the time of the Emperor Hadrian (AD117-38), by which time the Silures had been pacified. There is evidence for later activity at the site, but its nature is unclear. Background Reading The Ermine Street Guard kitted as auxiliary infantryman. The Roman fort of Gellygaer in the county of Glamorgan by John Ward. Published by Bemrose & Sons (1903). Gelligaer Roman fort by Richard Brewer. Published by the National Museums & Galleries of Wales (1980).
Medieval Cardiff 4 May 2007 Capital city of Wales John Speed's map of 1610. Speed's plan of Cardiff reveals many aspects of the city's development, including the majority of features described in this article. Travelling around Cardiff, capital city of Wales, it is easy to forget that this modern city's origins were laid many centuries ago. The heart of the city was formed during the medieval period and many traces from this time survive today, especially close to the castle. Cardiff lies at the centre of three river systems, the Taff, the Ely and the Rhymney. Its location allowed its first residents to control trade and movement along these rivers, giving them power over a large area. Roman Cardiff Cardiff Castle as it might have appeared in the 14th century. The inner face of the medieval bank still survives within the castle grounds and on close inspection the foundations for the medieval east wall can still be seen on the top of the bank. The first people to take advantage of this location were the Romans who set up a fort here about AD55-60. This dominating fort protected its inhabitants until about AD350-375 when it was abandoned at the end of Roman rule in Britain. The stone walls of the fort provided later generations with a massive source of building materials, while a further legacy from the Romans was a network of roads linking Cardiff with neighbouring areas. The medieval castle Beauchamp's tower, Cardiff castle. Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, built this tower in the 15th century, to protect the castle's west gate. Openings at the top of the tower allowed stones or burning objects to be dropped on attackers. The unusual spire was added in the 19th century. Today, much of Cardiff's Roman remains are lost beneath the medieval castle. The castle dates from the 11th century, when the Normans conquered Glamorgan. It was begun by William the Conqueror on his return from St David's in Pembrokeshire, in 1081. This is supported by an inscription on a coin found within the castle grounds which suggests that William may have established a mint at the castle. Cardiff Castle was originally built in wood. In the 12th century, Robert Consol, Duke of Gloucester, rebuilt it in stone. At this time, the Castle's west and south walls were raised, building upon the ruined walls of the Roman fort. Owain Glyndŵr The castle wall, Cardiff. In 15th century, town was destroyed by Owain Glyndŵr's Welsh army. The Castle lay in ruin until Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, restored the defences and castle buildings in 1423. Beauchamp also constructed the octagonal tower, now known as Beauchamp's tower. Much of the rest of the castle and walls dates to the 19th century, when the third Marquis of Bute employed William Burges to restore, refurbish and rebuild it. The medieval town Medieval town wall, Cardiff. Sadly, this is the best preserved section of Cardiff's town walls. It is now hidden behind retail developments along Queen's Street. Cardiff's Shire Hall was built inside the castle's walls in the 15th-century. It was in use as the town's administrative centre until the 17th century. The medieval town spread out from the castle's South Gate. Interestingly the High Street lines up with the Roman rather than the medieval south gate, suggesting it dates from this earlier period. The Medieval town probably developed in two stages. The first stage was within a relatively small enclosure marked out by Working Street and Womanby (Hummanbye) Streets' both names are linked to old Norse. In the second stage of its development, Cardiff expanded south. The town was then enclosed and defended to the east by a bank and ditch and eventually a stone gate. To the west, the town was protected by the meandering river Taff. Remains of the medieval wall Only two sections of the medieval wall are known to survive. The first supports a flower bed just east of the Roman fort wall, while the larger surviving piece is across the road behind retail outlets. Much of the surviving foundations of the wall were destroyed by the large shopping centres which swallowed up many of the small medieval alleyways of the city. Remains of the castle wall The remains of Blackfriars, Cardiff, in Cooper's Field beside the castle. The lower section of the castle wall belonged to the Roman fort, while the upper section was added in the 1920s. During the medieval period, building plots were packed so tight against the Roman wall, that some of the inhabitants were forced to extend their homes backwards through it. This can be seen in the undulating profile of peaks and troughs along the surviving length of the Roman wall. Religion In the centre of Cardiff stands St John's church. Its earliest surviving stonework is mid 13th century and its tower was added around the 1470s. Much of the church we see today was rebuilt during the 18th century. To the east of the castle lay the monastic settlement of Greyfriars, while to the west lay the Blackfriars, both were established around 1256-80. The friars were an active part of Cardiff life until the 1530s when Henry VIII dissolved their monasteries. By 1610, the Blackfriars buildings was in ruins, while the Greyfriars building was converted into a mansion of the Herbert family. The ruins of this mansion survived into the 20th century until they were pulled down to be replaced by a multi-storey car park and tower block. The foundations of Blackfriars were revealed during the 19th century, while the Marquis of Bute was renovating his gardens. These were opened to the public as a park in the 1940s. Background Reading 'Cardiff Castle excavations, 1974-1981' by Peter Webster. In Morgannwg, vol. 25, p201-11 (1981). Cardiff Castle: its history and architecture by J. P. Grant. Published by William Lewis (1923). Medieval Town Plans by B. P. Hindle. Published by Shire Archaeology (1990). The Cardiff Story. A history of the city from its earliest times to the present by Dennis Morgan. Published by Brown and Sons (1991).
Kidwelly Castle 4 May 2007 The conquest of Wales Kidwelly Castle is perched on a prominent ridge above the River Gwendraeth. The south gatehouse (left of image) dates to between 1390 and 1402, with major modifications undertaken between 1408 and 1422. Much of the curtain wall seen here dates from between 1270 and about 1300. Castles are perhaps the most striking legacy of the Anglo-Norman conquest of Wales, with Kidwelly Castle ranking as one of the finest. Kidwelly was built soon after King Henry I granted the Welsh lands of Cydweli to Bishop Roger of Salisbury in 1106. At first it consisted of an earthen bank and a timber palisade, with one or more gates. Inside, there would have been wooden domestic buildings and perhaps a stone-built hall. The castle was one of several established by the Normans to assert control over the kingship of Deheubarth in south-west Wales. It was situated both to control coastal traffic, and also to protect the important River Gwendraeth. Welsh princes and Norman lords Kidwelly town and castle under attack during the Glyndŵr rebellion of 1403. During the 12th century, Kidwelly was contested by Welsh princes and Norman lords, most notably in 1136 when the Welsh princess Gwenllian was killed in battle near it. Gwenllian's son, the Lord Rhys, enjoyed more success at Kidwelly, capturing and holding the castle until his death in 1197 - one of two occasions on which Kidwelly was held by the Welsh. However, for much of its history the castle remained firmly Anglo-Norman. By the early 13th century, a stone wall had replaced the outer timber defences, but it was the work of the Chaworth family towards the end of the 13th century that transformed the castle, giving it much of the form we see today. Modern castle design Early 14th-century wine jug, 25cm (9.8 inches) tall, found at Kidwelly - possibly imported directly from south-west France. Kidwelly benefited from the latest thinking in castle design. It has a concentric design with one circuit of defensive walls set within another to allow the castle to be held even if the outer wall should fall. The inner wall was also taller, allowing archers on both sets of walls to fire simultaneously - increasing their effect. In 1403 the defences of the castle were put to the test during the rebellion of Owain Glyn Dŵr. The town of Kidwelly fell to the attackers with the loss of several lives, but the castle held out through a siege that lasted until the winter. The old town, set up against the side of the castle, never recovered from the attack and, in 1444, was described as 'waste and desolate'. In its place a new town grew up on the far side of the river. In the centuries that followed, the castle's fortunes also declined and, in 1609, it was described as 'greately decayed and rynated'. From the 18th century, Kidwelly has been a popular tourist attraction, first as a picturesque ruin, and then, through the work of Cadw, as an important reminder of Wales's often turbulent history. Background Reading Kidwelly Castle by J. R. Kenyon. Published by Cadw (2002).
