Ancient Wales

The leopard cup. 11.5cm (4.5 inches) tall.

Detail of the leopard handle, showing its finely worked features and silver spots.

Leopard cup being placed in the Scanning Electron Microscope.

X-rays of the cup.

Microphoto of the leopard's face.

Discovered in 2003, this exquisite Roman vessel has been the subject of detailed study at Amgueddfa Cymru - National Museum Wales.

The bronze cup is one of the finest Roman vessels to have been found in Wales. It was discovered by Mr Gary Mapps near Abergavenny (Monmouthshire). It was reported to the Portable Antiquities Scheme, enabling the finds spot to be investigated.

Excavation of the site revealed that the cup had been placed upside down in a small pit containing a cremation. This cremation was part of a cemetery beside a Roman Road some distance from the mid 1st to early 2nd century fort at Abergavenny (Roman Gobannium). There is also a growing amount of evidence for a civilian settlement dating from the 2nd to 4th centuries in the neighbourhood of this cemetery.

The cup displays craftsmanship of a high standard and it was almost certainly manufactured in Italy during the 1st century AD. Very similar cups have been found at the doomed city of Pompeii, which was destroyed after the eruption of Vesuvius in AD79.

X-rays of the cup revealed that it was first cast in a mould using leaded bronze. Lead was added to help the molten bronze (principally copper and tin) flow more easily and improve the quality of the casting. Once this casting had been made the vessel was turned on a lathe with the use of a sharp cutting tool to produce its final shape.

The cup's decorative handle depicts a leopard which, in Roman mythology, appears as the draught-beast and companion of Bacchus, the god of wine. His worship involved feasting, drinking, music and dancing. Leopards, captured in both Africa and Asia, were also popular with the Romans for display and fighting in the amphitheatre arena.

The leopard handle was made separately using 'lost wax' casting. The first process was to make a wax model of the leopard. A clay mould was formed around the model and then heated to run off the wax. Leaded bronze was poured in to fill the space left by the wax and, after cooling, the mould was broken to remove the bronze handle.

Further work was undertaken on the finished casting: for example the tail and canine teeth, originally cast thicker, were cut away to form finer features. The spots were also chiselled out from the body after casting and inlaid with silver. The leopard was then attached to the cup using solder. The leopard's eyes, measuring about a millimetre in diameter, were also inlaid. Analysis of the remaining traces of inlay indicate that the eyes may have been of amber.

It is unknown whether the cup belonged to a member of the Roman army, or a native Briton from the nearby civilian settlement. Whichever is the case, this 1st century cup was a costly import and probably belonged to someone of status, who cherished it sufficiently to want it buried with them on their death.

Background Reading

Things Fall Apart: museum conservation in practice. National Museum Wales Books, 2006

Tredegar House and Park. The house and grounds are now in the ownership of Newport County Council. Many rooms have been restored and are open to the public. Image © Steve Burrow.

Man's short coat, dating to the early 1720s. The fabric is white taffeta with a lace pattern.

This coat was probably worn by Sir William Morgan. It is of yellow lace pattern silk, dated to about 1725, and is of either English or French origin.

Silver embroidered blue damask court mantua (an open fronted gown with an elaborate train), made in the 1720s.

An English silk robe and petticoat, dating to about 1745-47. Although this has been remade, the fabric survives in good condition. It has a yellow taffeta ground with white cannelè stripes and is brocaded with roses in coloured silks.

In the 18th century a gentleman's rank in society could be discerned from the quality of his house or his clothing - status was declared by the wearing of costly silks, lace or gold thread. Silks woven in the flourishing silk industry of Spitalfields in London and elsewhere were bought by Welsh families and brought to Wales to furnish their homes, dress themselves, and impress their neighbours.

The Morgans of Tredegar House, later Lords Tredegar, were one of the wealthiest families in Wales. They used rich silk furnishings in their home, as described in the inventory of 1698:

"4 green Silke Damask chequer curtains flowred with gold colour and lined with white chequer silke with double valiance, foot valiance, teaster and quilte imbroidred with Silke frings."

In the same bedroom there were four window curtains of white damask and seven silk cushions matching the bed hangings, all protected by a suite of orange dust covers.

In addition, the Morgans dressed themselves in the finest and most fashionable woven damasks and brocaded silks, some of which are now housed at St Fagans National History Museum, donated in 1923 by Lord Tredegar. Most date to the middle of the 18th century.

One robe and petticoat of French origin may have belonged to Martha Morgan, wife of Thomas Morgan, part of the Mansel family of Margam (and later of Penrice), one of the wealthiest families in the county. Thomas Morgan was succeeded by his brother, who considerably added to the estates. When his son, Sir William Morgan, inherited in 1719, he was able to embark upon a very flamboyant way of life.

In 1724 Sir William married Lady Rachel Cavendish, daughter of the Duke of Devonshire, who brought with her a dowry of £20,000. A number of items from Tredegar House date from between 1720 and 1731, when Sir William died. All of these garments match Sir William's reputation for extravagance - his annual expenditure in 1725 amounted to £37,418 (over £3.8 million or .9 million in today's terms) - and all would almost certainly have been bought in London.

Lady Rachel survived her husband for fifty years, and when her only son died unmarried in 1763, she lost a battle in the courts and her brother-in-law Thomas Morgan succeeded to the estate. Most of the remaining Tredegar garments belong to this period and were probably worn by Lady Rachel or Jane, the grand-daughter of John Morgan (born 1731), who had married in 1758 and was later to inherit the estate.

Since none of the Tredegar silks post-date Lady Rachel's life it is tempting to conclude that they all belonged to her and were packed away after her time, only being rediscovered by the family for their fancy dress possibilities during the following century.

A court mantua

This pictured garment had been remade and worn as fancy dress, probably during the 19th century. In 1971 it was returned to its original form, with the help of the late Janet Arnold. The later stitching was removed, which involved unpicking bust darts and the removal of stitching where the train had been caught up in several places, presumably in order to hide the fact that part of it had been cut away. The petticoat itself had not been altered.

This is a very grand robe which would have been worn for presentation at court. Lady Rachel Morgan was certainly sufficiently important to have worn it.

Background Reading

Social conditions at Tredegar House Newport in the 17th and 18th centuries, by M. R. Apted. In Monmouthshire Antiquarian, vol. 3:2, p124-54 (1972-3).

Tredegar House by David Freeman. Published by Newport Leisure Services Department (1982, revised edition published 1998).

Silk designs of the 18th century in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum by Natalie Rothstein. Published by the Victoria and Albert Museum (1990).

Woven Textile Design in Britain to 1750 by Natalie Rothstein. Published by the Victoria and Albert Museum (1994).

A court mantua of c. 1740 by Janet Arnold. In Costume (Journal of the Costume Society), vol. 6, p48-52 (1972).

A detail of Christopher Saxton's Map of Glamorgan, 1578, showing the coastline from Oxwich on Gower (left) to Margam (upper right).

Spanish gold and silver coins of Ferdinand and Isabella (1479-1504). Coins continued to be minted in their names long after their deaths, until the 1550s.

Talers

: large silver coins from Germany. This group includes issues of the Electors of Saxony, Counts of Stolberg, Langraves of Leuchtenberg and the cities of Cologne and Herford. The modern word 'Dollar' originates from Talers

A gold San Vicente of John III of Portugal (1527-57); the reverse (right side of image) depicts the saint holding a martyr's palm and a model ship.

Navigational dividers from the wreck of the Ann Francis.

Spanish coins, navigational tools and a whistle- are these the remains of the 16th-century vessel, the Ann Francis?

For many years, coins and other objects have been found on Margam Beach in Glamorgan. Many are of relatively recent date, but there is a noticeable concentration of coins dating from the middle of the 16th century.

Most of these coins are silver: of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and from a number of states of the German Holy Roman Empire. There are a few copper coins of John III of Portugal (1521-57) and even two spectacular gold coins - one Spanish and one Portuguese. Throw in sets of navigational dividers, lead sounding weights and a bosun's call (whistle) and what have you got? A shipwreck.

Most of the coins date from the 1530-1557. It is known that a French ship was lost in December 1557 at Oxwich on the Gower, 21km (14 miles) to the west - but is there no suitable wreck closer to Margam?

Well, a 16th-century wreck is known at Margam, but not in 1557. On 28 December 1583, the Ann Francis, the newest and biggest ship belonging to the King's Lynn merchant Francis Shaxton, ran aground on Margam Beach.

The ship was promptly plundered by the local inhabitants, until agents of the local landowners restored order and themselves laid claim to the goods. In due course Shaxton learnt of his ship's fate and after lengthy legal battles recovered some of his goods - anchors, cannon, cables and money.

Usually, coins are a good pointer to the dates of wrecks, so why do they suggest a much earlier date here? One answer, of course, may be that there really was a separate wreck at Margam in 1557, though we have no other evidence for one. But it is known that the Ann Francis carried a lot of money, probably the proceeds of selling a cargo of grain in Spain and/or Portugal.

The coins, of types that were by now obsolete, acted simply as silver bullion, which in normal circumstances would have been taken to the Mint in London to be converted into coin of the British realm. The ship lost its way on the return leg of the voyage and the silver never made it to London.

Background Reading

'Wreck de Mer and dispersed wreck sites: the case of the Ann Francis (1583)' by M. Redknap and E. Besly. In Artefacts from Wrecks edited by M. Redknap, p191-208. Published by Oxbow Books (1997).

Capital city of Wales

John Speed's map of 1610. Speed's plan of Cardiff reveals many aspects of the city's development, including the majority of features described in this article.

Travelling around Cardiff, capital city of Wales, it is easy to forget that this modern city's origins were laid many centuries ago. The heart of the city was formed during the medieval period and many traces from this time survive today, especially close to the castle.

Cardiff lies at the centre of three river systems, the Taff, the Ely and the Rhymney. Its location allowed its first residents to control trade and movement along these rivers, giving them power over a large area.

Roman Cardiff

Cardiff Castle as it might have appeared in the 14th century. The inner face of the medieval bank still survives within the castle grounds and on close inspection the foundations for the medieval east wall can still be seen on the top of the bank.

The first people to take advantage of this location were the Romans who set up a fort here about AD55-60. This dominating fort protected its inhabitants until about AD350-375 when it was abandoned at the end of Roman rule in Britain.

The stone walls of the fort provided later generations with a massive source of building materials, while a further legacy from the Romans was a network of roads linking Cardiff with neighbouring areas.

The medieval castle

Beauchamp's tower, Cardiff castle. Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, built this tower in the 15th century, to protect the castle's west gate. Openings at the top of the tower allowed stones or burning objects to be dropped on attackers. The unusual spire was added in the 19th century.

Today, much of Cardiff's Roman remains are lost beneath the medieval castle. The castle dates from the 11th century, when the Normans conquered Glamorgan. It was begun by William the Conqueror on his return from St David's in Pembrokeshire, in 1081. This is supported by an inscription on a coin found within the castle grounds which suggests that William may have established a mint at the castle.

Cardiff Castle was originally built in wood. In the 12th century, Robert Consol, Duke of Gloucester, rebuilt it in stone. At this time, the Castle's west and south walls were raised, building upon the ruined walls of the Roman fort.

Owain Glyndŵr

The castle wall, Cardiff.

In 15th century, town was destroyed by Owain Glyndŵr's Welsh army. The Castle lay in ruin until Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, restored the defences and castle buildings in 1423. Beauchamp also constructed the octagonal tower, now known as Beauchamp's tower.

Much of the rest of the castle and walls dates to the 19th century, when the third Marquis of Bute employed William Burges to restore, refurbish and rebuild it.

The medieval town

Medieval town wall, Cardiff. Sadly, this is the best preserved section of Cardiff's town walls. It is now hidden behind retail developments along Queen's Street.

Cardiff's Shire Hall was built inside the castle's walls in the 15th-century. It was in use as the town's administrative centre until the 17th century.

The medieval town spread out from the castle's South Gate. Interestingly the High Street lines up with the Roman rather than the medieval south gate, suggesting it dates from this earlier period.

The Medieval town probably developed in two stages. The first stage was within a relatively small enclosure marked out by Working Street and Womanby (Hummanbye) Streets' both names are linked to old Norse. In the second stage of its development, Cardiff expanded south. The town was then enclosed and defended to the east by a bank and ditch and eventually a stone gate. To the west, the town was protected by the meandering river Taff.

Remains of the medieval wall

Only two sections of the medieval wall are known to survive. The first supports a flower bed just east of the Roman fort wall, while the larger surviving piece is across the road behind retail outlets. Much of the surviving foundations of the wall were destroyed by the large shopping centres which swallowed up many of the small medieval alleyways of the city.

Remains of the castle wall

The remains of Blackfriars, Cardiff, in Cooper's Field beside the castle.

The lower section of the castle wall belonged to the Roman fort, while the upper section was added in the 1920s. During the medieval period, building plots were packed so tight against the Roman wall, that some of the inhabitants were forced to extend their homes backwards through it. This can be seen in the undulating profile of peaks and troughs along the surviving length of the Roman wall.

Religion

In the centre of Cardiff stands St John's church. Its earliest surviving stonework is mid 13th century and its tower was added around the 1470s. Much of the church we see today was rebuilt during the 18th century.

To the east of the castle lay the monastic settlement of Greyfriars, while to the west lay the Blackfriars, both were established around 1256-80. The friars were an active part of Cardiff life until the 1530s when Henry VIII dissolved their monasteries. By 1610, the Blackfriars buildings was in ruins, while the Greyfriars building was converted into a mansion of the Herbert family. The ruins of this mansion survived into the 20th century until they were pulled down to be replaced by a multi-storey car park and tower block. The foundations of Blackfriars were revealed during the 19th century, while the Marquis of Bute was renovating his gardens. These were opened to the public as a park in the 1940s.

Background Reading

'Cardiff Castle excavations, 1974-1981' by Peter Webster. In Morgannwg, vol. 25, p201-11 (1981).

Cardiff Castle: its history and architecture by J. P. Grant. Published by William Lewis (1923).

Medieval Town Plans by B. P. Hindle. Published by Shire Archaeology (1990).

The Cardiff Story. A history of the city from its earliest times to the present by Dennis Morgan. Published by Brown and Sons (1991).

The conquest of Wales

Kidwelly Castle is perched on a prominent ridge above the River Gwendraeth. The south gatehouse (left of image) dates to between 1390 and 1402, with major modifications undertaken between 1408 and 1422. Much of the curtain wall seen here dates from between 1270 and about 1300.

Castles are perhaps the most striking legacy of the Anglo-Norman conquest of Wales, with Kidwelly Castle ranking as one of the finest.

Kidwelly was built soon after King Henry I granted the Welsh lands of Cydweli to Bishop Roger of Salisbury in 1106. At first it consisted of an earthen bank and a timber palisade, with one or more gates. Inside, there would have been wooden domestic buildings and perhaps a stone-built hall.

The castle was one of several established by the Normans to assert control over the kingship of Deheubarth in south-west Wales. It was situated both to control coastal traffic, and also to protect the important River Gwendraeth.

Welsh princes and Norman lords

Kidwelly town and castle under attack during the Glyndŵr rebellion of 1403.

During the 12th century, Kidwelly was contested by Welsh princes and Norman lords, most notably in 1136 when the Welsh princess Gwenllian was killed in battle near it.

Gwenllian's son, the Lord Rhys, enjoyed more success at Kidwelly, capturing and holding the castle until his death in 1197 - one of two occasions on which Kidwelly was held by the Welsh. However, for much of its history the castle remained firmly Anglo-Norman.

By the early 13th century, a stone wall had replaced the outer timber defences, but it was the work of the Chaworth family towards the end of the 13th century that transformed the castle, giving it much of the form we see today.

Modern castle design

Early 14th-century wine jug, 25cm (9.8 inches) tall, found at Kidwelly - possibly imported directly from south-west France.

Kidwelly benefited from the latest thinking in castle design. It has a concentric design with one circuit of defensive walls set within another to allow the castle to be held even if the outer wall should fall. The inner wall was also taller, allowing archers on both sets of walls to fire simultaneously - increasing their effect.

In 1403 the defences of the castle were put to the test during the rebellion of Owain Glyn Dŵr. The town of Kidwelly fell to the attackers with the loss of several lives, but the castle held out through a siege that lasted until the winter. The old town, set up against the side of the castle, never recovered from the attack and, in 1444, was described as 'waste and desolate'. In its place a new town grew up on the far side of the river.

In the centuries that followed, the castle's fortunes also declined and, in 1609, it was described as 'greately decayed and rynated'.

From the 18th century, Kidwelly has been a popular tourist attraction, first as a picturesque ruin, and then, through the work of Cadw, as an important reminder of Wales's often turbulent history.

Background Reading

Kidwelly Castle by J. R. Kenyon. Published by Cadw (2002).