Raglan Castle 22 March 2022 Raglan Castle is one of the finest late medieval buildings in the British Isles and, although now ruined, it remains a striking presence in the landscape of south-east Wales. Where is Raglan Castle? Raglan Castle is located just north of the village of Raglan in the county of Monmouthshire, off the A40 between Monmouth and Abergavenny. For details on how to visit, see Cadw’s webpage. When was Raglan Castle built? Much of what remains at Raglan dates from the 15th century, the period of the Wars of the Roses and the rise of the Tudor dynasty, though there is believed to have been an earlier, Norman motte-and-bailey castle on the site. The hexagonal Great Tower is the most impressive of the buildings from this period, dominating the two courtyards of the castle. The Great Tower. An impressive self-contained fortress-cum-residence which lies outside the circuit of the castle's curtain walls. Image: Cadw (Crown copyright). The castle as it stands today was built in three main phases. The first phase of building in the fifteenth century included the hexagonal, five-storey Great Tower, which was surrounded by a moat and, when it was originally built, could only be accessed from inside the castle via a drawbridge. The second phase, built by Sir William Herbert, the first Earl of Pembroke, added sumptuous apartments. Finally, the castle was transformed into a mansion by the Earls of Worcester in the 16th century. The Great Gatehouse, Raglan. Built between 1460 and 1469 the gatehouse was designed to impress and intimidate visitors with its arrays of gun loops, machicolations, portcullises and doors. Image: Cadw (Crown copyright). Who built Raglan Castle? There is some controversy over who built the first phase of the castle; it was built either by William Herbert, the first Earl of Pembroke, or his father, William ap Thomas, who had purchased Raglan in 1432. William Herbert was a key figure in the politics of the late 15th century. During the Wars of the Roses he supported Edward IV. The reward for his loyalty was considerable, providing him with the title Earl of Pembroke, and sufficient resources to convert Raglan into a palace-fortress. Earl William's success was, however, to be short-lived. In 1469 he was captured by Lancastrian supporters at the Battle of Edgecote and put to death. The Herberts retained control of Raglan until 1492 when it passed to the Somerset family. William Somerset, the third Earl of Worcester (1526–1589), was the first of his family to significantly alter the castle's buildings. Reconstruction of Raglan Castle, about 1620, showing the formal gardens that existed in the castle's heyday. Image: Cadw (Crown copyright). He focused his efforts on upgrading the quality of the hall and service ranges to meet the social expectations of his time. He also established the gardens, including a series of walled terraces, an artificial lake, a fountain, flower beds and herb gardens. The Herberts retained control of Raglan until 1492, when it passed to the Somerset family. William Somerset, the third Earl of Worcester (1526–1589), was the first of his family to significantly alter the castle's buildings. The third Earl focused his efforts on upgrading the quality of the hall and service ranges to meet the social expectations of his time. He also established the gardens, including a series of walled terraces, an artificial lake, a fountain, flower beds and herb gardens. Reconstruction of life at Raglan Castle in the 16th century, at the time of the Third Earl of Worcester. Image: Cadw (Crown copyright). What happened to Raglan Castle? By the middle of the 17th century, Raglan's fortunes were at their peak. It had achieved a level of sophistication and opulence that only the greatest country houses could match. However, the English Civil War was to change all this. In 1642, the fifth Earl of Worcester declared his support for the Royalist cause, offering considerable financial support to King Charles I. This was to make Raglan a target for Parliamentarian forces, which subsequently besieged the castle in June 1646. Its defenders held out during the summer, but by mid-August the Parliamentarians had moved their siege works to within sixty yards of the castle. Its defenders surrendered on 19 August. After it was captured, the castle was deliberately made useless for defensive purposes, a process known as ‘slighting’. This is when the gigantic hole was torn through the Great Tower. In the years that followed Raglan was abandoned and left to decay, becoming a convenient source of building material and a picturesque tourist attraction. Today this decay has been halted and the building conserved through the work of Cadw and its predecessors. The ivy-covered Main Gatehouse, photographed by Sir Thomas Mansel Franklen (1840–1928) Who owns Raglan Castle? Raglan Castle is still owned by the Somerset family, who became Dukes of Beaufort in 1682. In 1938 it was put in the care of the Ministry of Works, and it is now looked after by Cadw. Which films have used Raglan Castle as a backdrop? Raglan Castle appeared in Terry Gilliam’s film Time Bandits (1981), where it stood in for an Italian castle under siege in the Napoleonic Wars. Background reading Raglan Castle by J. R. Kenyon. Published by Cadw (2003). The decorated floor tiles from Raglan Castle Cadw listing Coflein listing (Royal Commission of Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales) Header image adapted from Raglan Castle by Steve Slater, CC BY 2.0
Norman Cardiff and minting coins Edward Besly and Peter Webster, 5 October 2018 Coin of William Rufus - front Coin of William Rufus - reverse Amgueddfa Cymru-National Museum Wales has just acquired a rare piece of Cardiff’s early history: a silver penny of the Norman king William II (1087-1100) made in the castle mint in the early 1090s. The newly acquired coin of William Rufus. William II, known as ‘Rufus’ (‘the Red’, perhaps from his hair colour), was the son of William the Conqueror (also known as ‘the Bastard’). During his reign the Normans made their first incursions into this part of Wales under Robert FitzHamon, a Norman baron who conquered the area and became the first lord of Glamorgan. The Normans brought with them the habit of using coinage and it seems that a mint was set up at the castle soon after its foundation in 1081. However, no coin certainly identified to be of William Rufus from the Cardiff mint had been recorded before this one showed up in 2017, within a private collection which was offered up for auction. Prior to the Norman invasion, coinage was in regular use in Anglo-Saxon England, with a network of mints and a centralised supply for the dies used to make it, but there was no tradition of minting in Wales. Early Norman Cardiff was a frontier town, and so its mint had to fend for itself: the obverse (‘heads’) die seems to have been borrowed from elsewhere and the king’s effigy was re-engraved, giving him a slightly comical appearance. The reverse (‘tails’) was made locally from scratch – it bears a clear, if crudely engraved mint signature ‘CAIRDI’ [CIVRDI or CIIIRDI], but we cannot fully read the moneyer’s name, ‘IÐHINI’ (Ð = ‘TH’) – he may have been called Æthelwine (interestingly, a Saxon rather than a Norman name). The designs of current coins were changed every few years – and the king took a cut every time a new coinage was issued. We now know of coins from four different issues in the name of ‘William’ (which could be either William the Conqueror, or his son William Rufus) and four more for Henry I (1100-35) from the Cardiff mint, but they are all incredibly rare. In the civil war of King Stephen’s reign (1135-54), Cardiff fell into the hands of the Angevin party of his enemy, the Empress Maud. In 1980, a hoard of over 100 coins, mostly previously-unknown Cardiff issues of Maud, was found at Coed-y-Wenallt, above Cardiff, and transformed our knowledge of that period. It included baronial issues from Cardiff and Swansea – which, for the latter, was the earliest evidence of that place-name. After that, however, the Cardiff mint disappears from history. Our new coin of Rufus provides another piece of the jigsaw that is the early history of Cardiff and its region. Many pieces are no doubt still missing, and who knows what may still await discovery? As for the man himself, he died on 2 August 1100, whilst hunting in the New Forest, when struck by an arrow: an unfortunate accident or was he murdered? Edward Besly, Numismatist (Coins and Medals Curator), Amgueddfa Cymru-National Museum Wales. The Norman castle as envisaged by RCAHM. The stone keep is probably later than the reign of William Rufus and would originally have been of wood. Motte surrounded by a ditch Assumed Ward wall Re-used Roman wall probably without projecting towers Earth bank with ditch outside A schematic section through the castle’s earthen defences before the 19th and 20th century removal of the outer portion of the medieval bank and the reconstruction of the Roman Fort wall. Remains of Roman fort wall Roman bank Norman bank Later Medieval castle wall Reconstructed Norman castle wall between the South Gate and the Clock Tower The west castle wall. The stretch between the towers is essentially the wall of the Norman castle. The massive Norman motte, with later medieval stone shell keep. The Medieval bank surviving on the inside of the East walls. The crop mark visible in the foreground is a late medieval building. The stone wall and gateway from the outer to the inner ward, seen here looking from the Keep to the South Gate. This wall probably has its origin in the defences of the Norman castle. Speed’s 1610 map of Cardiff. The coming of the Normans Cardiff today is largely a product of Victorian development, but at the very centre of the city is a historic core originating with the Roman military and later re-occupied by the Normans. There is little or no trace of a settlement at Cardiff between the end of the Roman period and the coming of the Normans into Wales in the 1080s, although there may have been some occupation at the point where the Roman road from Caerleon to Carmarthen crossed the River Taff. When the Normans arrived, this was the point where they chose to site the military and administrative centre for their new lordship of Glamorgan, re-using the remains of the late Roman fort for a castle enclosure and establishing a small town at its southern gate. Reconstructing the Norman castle Norman Cardiff had its focus in the castle, but the castle building we see today is very different to the original one. To get at the Norman castle we have to strip away the 19th and 20th century alterations made by the marquesses of Bute, which had in part involved the restoration of the walls of the late Roman fort. The Normans threw up a massive earth bank over the remains of the Roman fort walls, from a point near the north-west corner of the castle, round onto the sides now fronting Kingsway and Duke Street. The remaining Roman fort walling (from near the present south gate round onto the side now facing into Bute Park) was repaired, although, strangely, the projecting towers which will have formed part of the Roman defences appear to have been removed – perhaps to provide material for the repairs. This Norman wall can still be seen, albeit with a good deal of 19th century restoration, between the south gate and the Clock Tower and north of the western castle apartments. The material for the banks on the north, east and part of the south sides was taken from a massive ditch dug around the entire enclosure. This is now filled in on Kingsway and Castle/Duke Street and underlies the present western moat and northern dock feeder. This ditch can still be glimpsed occasionally when service trenches are opened around the castle, but a clearer idea of its scale can be gained from the evidence of John Ward, curator of the Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery from 1893 to 1912. Ward observed the underground toilets being dug in Kingsway and reported that, although completely below ground, they did not reach the bottom of the ditch. Ward’s schematic diagram of the castle’s earthen bank shows the result of this ditch digging – the sizeable bank still present on the inner side of the castle walls (to the left of the diagram) repeated on the outside. Inside these outer defences, the Normans constructed a massive motte – a mound rather like an inverted pudding basin, surrounded by a large moat. This can still be seen, although the mound received some landscaping by Capability Brown in the late 18th century and the moat (which Brown filled in) was re-excavated in the 19th century and may be more regular than it once was. We can assume that there was some sort of structure on the top of the mound, probably a wooden palisade and tower, likely to have been replaced by the present stone ‘shell-keep’ in the 1240s. The remainder of the castle interior was probably divided as seen now by some sort of wall between the keep and the south gate. A stone wall seems likely but is uncertain. We can expect buildings (probably of wood) within the two ‘wards’ thus created but, to date, no certain structures have been discovered within the limited area excavated. The Norman town. South of the castle lay the small town of Cardiff. The classic view of the medieval town is that created in 1610 by John Speed, which shows a walled enclosure extending south from just east of the south-east corner of the castle to the bottom of what is now St Mary’s Street. This, however, depicts the late medieval town. It is likely that the first Norman town was smaller, probably bordered by the present day Womanby Street, Quay Street, Church Street and St Johns Street (the semi-circle of streets at the northern end of the town as seen on the Speed map). This layout can still be seen in the streets of Cardiff and it is noticeable that the junctions of High Street and St Mary’s Street, and of St John’s Street and Working Street, lie on the suggested early boundary. This, along with much else of the documentary history of Norman and Angevin Cardiff, is discussed by David Crouch (2006). Crouch’s hope that archaeology will add to this picture has so far not been fulfilled. The only excavations within the suggested first town (in Womanby Street and Castle Street), although they confirm Norman occupation, have not yielded structures of such an early date. Indeed, the assiduous digging of cellars by the Victorian residents of Cardiff has unfortunately removed a good deal of the potential evidence. Peter Webster, Honorary Research Fellow, Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales (former lecturer, Cardiff University) Further Reading Cardiff Castle The medieval castle is treated extensively in RCAHMW, An inventory of the ancient monuments in Glamorgan, Vol. III, Part 1a, Medieval Secular Monuments, the early castles from the Norman conquest to 1217, London 1991, 162-211, which, despite the title, takes the castle story up to the 20th century. Further background to the restoration of the Marquesses of Bute is provided by J. P. Grant, architect to the 4th Marquess (Cardiff Castle, its history and architecture, Cardiff 1923). The Town The best discussion of Norman Cardiff is David Crouch. ‘Cardiff before 1300’ pp.34-41 in J.R.Kenyon, D.M.Williams (Eds.), Cardiff. Architecture and Archaeology in the Medieval Diocese of Llandaff, British Archaeological Association Conference Transactions 29, London 2006. This includes references to earlier work by W.Rees (1962) and D.Walker (1978).
Uncovering our Collections: Half a Million Records now Online 26 March 2018 As we reveal half a million collection records for the first time, we look at some of the strangest and most fascinating objects from National Museum Wales Collections Online. This article contains photos of human skeletal fragments. The Biggest We have some real whoppers in our collections - including a full-size Cardiff Tram and a sea rescue helicopter - but the biggest item in our collection is actually Oakdale Workmen's Institute. Built in 1917, the Institute features a billiard room, dance hall and library - and is nowadays found in St Fagans National Museum of History. Horace Watkins testing his monoplane in 1908 Many of the buildings in St Fagans are part of the national collection - meaning they have the same legal status as one of our masterpiece Monets or this coin hoard. The buildings are dismantled, moved, rebuilt - and cared for using traditional techniques, by the museum's legendary Historic Buildings Unit. The Oldest The oldest human remains ever discovered in Wales These teeth belonged to an eight year-old Neanderthal boy - and at 230,000 years old, they are the oldest human remains in Wales. They were discovered in a cave near Cefn Meiriadog in Denbighshire, along with a trove of other prehistoric finds, including stone tools and the remains of a bear, a lion, a leopard and a rhinocerous tooth. These teeth are among some of the incredible objects on display at St Fagans National Museum of History The Shiniest People in Wales have been making, trading and wearing beautiful treasures from gold for thousands of years - like this Bronze Age hair ornament and this extremely blingy Medieval signet. At around 4000 years old, this sun disc is one of the earliest and rarest examples of Welsh bling One of the earliest examples of Welsh bling is this so-called 'sun disc', found near Cwmystwyth in Ceredigion. Current research suggests that these 'sun discs' were part of ancient funeral practice, most likely sewn onto the clothes of the dead before their funerals. Only six have ever been found in the UK. Most Controversial At first glance, an ordinary Chapel tea service - used by congregations as they enjoyed a 'paned o de' after a service. A closer look reveals the words - 'Capel Celyn'. The chapel, its graveyard and surrounding village are now under water. Capel Celyn, in the Tryweryn Valley, is now underwater Flooded in 1965 by the Liverpool Corporation, the Tryweryn valley became a flashpoint for Welsh political activism - creating a new generation of campaigners who pushed for change in how Welsh communities were treated by government and corporations. Curators from St Fagans collected these as an example of life in Capel Celyn - to serve as a poignant reminder of a displaced community, and to commemorate one of the most politically charged moments of the 20th century in Wales. Honourable Mention: an Airplane made from a Dining Room Chair Made from a dining room chair, piano wire and a 40 horsepower engine, the Robin Goch (Red Robin) was built in 1909 - and also features a fuel gauge made from an egg timer. The Robin Goch (Red Robin) on display at the National Waterfront Museum Its builder, Horace Watkins, was the son of a Cardiff printer - here he is pictured with an earlier, even more rickety version of his famous monoplane. Horace Watkins testing his monoplane in 1908 Our collections are full of stories which reflect Wales' unique character and history. The Robin Goch is one of the treasures of the collection, and is an example of Welsh ingenuity at its best. Half a Million Searchable Items The launch of Collections Online uncovers half a million records, which are now searchable online for the first time. “Collections Online represents a huge milestone in our work, to bring more of our collections online and to reach the widest possible audience. It’s also just the beginning. It’s exciting to think how people in Wales and beyond will explore these objects, form connections, build stories around them, and add to our store of knowledge." – Chris Owen, Web Manager Search Collections Online Plans for the future Our next project will be to work through these 500,000 records, adding information and images as we go. We'll be measuring how people use the collections, to see which objects provoke debate or are popular with our visitors. That way, we can work out what items to photograph next, or which items to consider for display in our seven national museums. Preparing and photographing the collections can take time, as some items are very fragile and sensitive to light. If you would like to support us as we bring the nation's collections online, please donate today - every donation counts. Donate Today We are incredibly grateful to the People's Postcode Lottery for their support in making this collection available online.
"Here comes the Devil": Welsh Suffrage and the Suffragettes Elen Phillips, 1 February 2018 At precisely 8:00pm, February 6th, 1918, The Representation of the People Act was passed by Royal Assent in Westminster. After decades of campaigning, some women were now allowed to vote. The Equal Franchise Act, passed in 1928, gave all women over 21 the right to vote. We're used to seeing photos of 'Suffragettes' protesting in London, but what about the campaign in Wales? Non-Violent Protest Even though the press at the time concentrated on the trials and tribulations of the Suffragettes, there were far more Suffragists in Wales. Suffragists believed in peaceful action, and changing things through constitutional means. Among them were members of the Cardiff District Women's Suffrage Society - the largest branch of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies outside London. At their helm was Rose Mabel Lewis (Greenmeadow, Tongwynlais) – or 'Mrs Henry Lewis' as she is described in our museum documentation. The most prominent members of the branch tended to be the city's well-connected, middle-class women. Their annual report for 1911 shows they held a whole host of activities to raise awareness of their campaign, including a fancy dress dance, whist drive and jumble sale. That year, their membership doubled to 920. Banners: The Craft of Activism Banner of the Cardiff Cardiff & District Women's Suffrage Society. Made by Rose Mabel Lewis, President of the Society Rose Mabel Lewis made the silk banner now held in the Museum's collection - a powerful example of how the Suffragists and Suffragettes used craft to communicate and express themselves. The exact date of the banner is unknown, but evidence shows it was used in a protest in 1911. During that year, on the 17th of June, Rose Mabel led the women of south Wales in the Women's Coronation Procession in London. The banner's accession documents contain a note of explanation from one of the branch's former members: The banner was worked by Mrs Henry Lewis… [she] was also President of the South Wales Federation of Women’s Suffrage Societies + she led the S. Wales section of the great Suffrage Procession in London on June 17th 1911, walking in front of her own beautiful banner… It was a great occasion, some 40,000 to 50,000 men + women taking part in the walk from Whitehall through Pall Mall, St James’s Street + Piccadilly to the Albert Hall. The dragon attracted much attention – “Here comes the Devil” was the greeting of one group of on lookers. Banners like this were an incredibly important part of the visual culture of activists campaigning for women's right to vote. A number of these banners can be found today in museums and archives, including the Cardiff University Special Collections and Archives. Organisers of the 1911 march expected over 900 banners on the day! Two years later, in July 1913, the banner appears again on the streets of Cardiff, as part of a march in the city to raise awareness of the Great Suffrage Pilgrimage. In the museum's collection, we find amazing pictures of Rose Mabel Lewis, and the branch's other members, gathering with the banner in front of City Hall in Cathays Park: According to the annual report for 1913-14, some of the members were worried about the march, but were emboldened after receiving a positive response on the day: It was with misgivings that some members agreed to take part in the procession, but afterwards their enthusiasm aroused and the desire to do something more in the future. The march was useful in drawing the attention of many people to the existance of our society. Making History: St Fagans and the centenary In 2018, the banner will be on display in Cardiff once more - not in a protest, but in a display of iconic objects from Wales at St Fagans National Museum of History. The display, which is part of the Making History project to redevelop St Fagans, will mark the first time the banner is displayed since it was donated in 1950 by the Cardiff Women Citizen's Association. At that time, their treasurer wrote a letter to Dr Iorwerth Peate, Keeper of St Fagans, to express their great pride in seeing the banner preserved for the future at St Fagans: A cordial vote of thanks was accorded to you for realising how much the Suffrage Cause meant to women and for granting a memorial of it in the shape of the banner to remain in the Museum. In addition to the banner, the museum also holds a number of objects relating to campaigns for women's right to vote, including letters and reports from the NUWSS, as well as an unusual hand-made anti-suffragette doll from west Wales. Anti-suffrage voodoo doll sent anonymously to a woman in west Wales, early 1900s Primary Sources: National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies: Cardiff & District Annual Report, 1911-12 (St Fagans National Musuem of History). National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies: Cardiff & District Annual Report, 1913-14 (St Fagans National Musuem of History). Accession Documents 50.118 (St Fagans National Museum of History). Secondary Sources: Kay Cook a Neil Evans, 'The Petty Antics of the Bell-Ringing Boisterous Band'? The Women's Suffrage Movement in Wales, 1890 - 1918' yn Angela V. John (gol.), Our Mothers' Land Chapters in Welsh Women's History 1830 - 1939 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1991). Ryland Wallace, The Women's Suffrage Movement in Wales 1866 - 1928 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2009).
Counterfeit Coins Rhianydd Biebrach, 16 March 2017 The last execution for forgery took place in 1830 and Victorian forgers were punished by transportation, imprisonment and hard labour. The punishment for counterfeiting today is several years’ imprisonment. Have you ever been guilty of passing fake coins? A forged Charles I half-crown. The corroded base metal core can clearly be seen through the thin silver plating. Your answer will hopefully be, “no, of course not!”, but would you be able to spot one if you saw one? According to the Royal Mint, just over 2.5% of the £1 coins circulating in 2015 were counterfeit, so how many of us have unwittingly broken the law by handling fake money? But far from being a modern problem, you may be surprised to learn that counterfeit coins have been causing headaches for the authorities for thousands of years – for as long as we have been using money, in fact. Occasionally, metal detectorists who unearth coins and report them to the Portable Antiquities Scheme in Wales (PAS Cymru), are told that what they have found is not what it seems to be – it is in fact a fake. In 2015, out of 679 coins reported, seven were judged by experts at Amgueddfa Cymru-National Museum Wales to be contemporary counterfeits. Many more were described as ‘irregular’ and therefore also produced under suspicious circumstances. One of the fakes was a Charles I half crown, discovered by Mr Nick Mensikov at Miskin, Rhondda Cynon Taf. A half crown is a silver coin, but Mr Mensikov’s example gave itself away as a fake because corrosion revealed it to have only a thin coating of silver over a copper alloy core. In ‘mint’ condition it would have looked sound enough to the untrained eye, but its real value would have been well below the two shillings and sixpence (or one-eighth of a pound) that the half crown represented. Twelve fake coins from the reign of Charles I found in Wales have been reported to PAS Cymru since 2009, far outweighing those of any other monarch, but the great majority are much older than this and date from the period of Roman occupation, from the first to the early fifth century AD. One of these Charles I half-crowns is also a fake. Can you tell which one? Who made counterfeits, and why? Counterfeit coins were made for several reasons in the past. Sometimes, when supplies of the smaller denomination coins were inadequate, unofficial production took place to make up the shortfall. In Roman Britain this happened to such an extent that at some periods there may have been as many fake coins in circulation as real ones. After Claudius’s invasion in AD 43 the Roman army itself may have been responsible for much of this ‘irregular’ coinage, which was sometimes tolerated by governments as being something of a necessary evil. In other cases, people forged coins purely and simply for monetary gain. Of course, this was not an easy process. It required access to supplies of metals, a furnace or crucible, and various other bits and pieces of equipment, including dies or moulds on which had been engraved a passable copy of the coin to be reproduced. This meant that forgery operations generally involved more than one person, as well as some initial financial outlay, and so they were not the last resort of a poor man or woman with no other way of getting cash. Some ‘coiners’, as forgers were sometimes called, were already wealthy individuals. In 1603 a coining operation was uncovered at Duncannon Fort in Ireland. Moulds, pieces of brass, crucibles, as well as chemicals and charcoal, were discovered in the desk of the fort’s commander, Sir John Brockett. Sir John had been producing counterfeit English and Spanish coins, for which he was put on trial for treason. Some forgeries were never intended for use as cash, however. As early as the sixteenth century antiquaries and collectors began to be interested in old coins, and consequently some unscrupulous individuals went into business supplying fakes to tempt the unsuspecting or naïve. In early Victorian London, one Edward Emery was responsible for passing a possible 5-700 fake medieval and Tudor coins onto the collectors’ market. Roman coins were also highly collectable, and a modern era replica of one was found by a Mr Rogers in Usk in 2007. Made of a white base metal alloy designed to look like silver, was it thrown away in disgust by its owner when he realised what he had bought? How were counterfeit coins made? There were two main methods of producing fake coins – striking them from stolen or forged dies, or casting them in moulds. A coining operation in Ireland in 1601 used metal and chalk dies to strike the coins, which were made of an alloy which included enough tin to create the necessary silver colour, although the coins, of course, contained no precious metal. This was obviously a noisy activity and so coining dens were often located either in busy areas such as town centres where the noise and activity would be masked by the hustle and bustle of the streets, or in out-of-the-way places where people were unlikely to go. The latter option was chosen by the Roman forgers at work in the lead mine at Draethen, near Caerphilly. Discovered here were coins, the ‘flans’, or blanks, from which the false coins were struck, as well as the metal rods from which the flans were cut. These items were found around a hearth, and we can only guess at the hot, unpleasant and dangerous atmosphere that this subterranean forging operation would have created. Casting was a different process, but it still required access to a powerful heat source as molten metal was required. An impression of both sides of a genuine coin was made in clay, wax or ashes. The hardened moulds were then fixed together and filled with molten metal alloy. Some cast coins are given away by the tell-tale remains of the channel through which the metal was poured and which wasn’t properly broken off or filed down. There has been plenty of evidence for this forging method from Roman London, consisting of both the cast coins themselves (often in a silvery-looking alloy of bronze and tin) as well as hundreds of moulds. The appearance of precious metal necessary to pass off a fake coin was not only achieved by cunning uses of alloys (some of which included arsenic for a whitening effect!). Some coins – like the Charles I half-crown mentioned earlier – were made from base metals which were then plated with a thin coating of silver or gold to achieve the desired effect. Medieval forgeries often used a technique called fire gilding. A base metal blank was rubbed with a mixture of gold and mercury which was then heated. The mercury was evaporated and the gold was bonded to the surface. The coin could then be struck between the dies. This process obviously required some technical skill, and there is evidence that forgers were experimenting with methods that would later be used for more legitimate purposes. A counterfeit coin of William III (1689–1702) was found to have been made by an early example of the Sheffield plating technique. A copper plate was rolled or hammered between two thin sheets of silver from which blank coins were then cut out. The edges were covered with a copper and silver alloy and the blanks were then struck with official dies smuggled out of the London mint. The gold and silver necessary for the plating were sourced by clipping real coins (an offence in itself) as well as melting down pieces of plate or other coins. Punishments The severity of the punishments for counterfeiting have reflected both the seriousness of the crime but also the difficulty of detecting those responsible. Like many penalties of the pre-modern era, they were physical in nature. In ancient Rome it was a capital offence, equated with treason, and could be punished by banishment or slavery if you were lucky, or crucifixion if you weren’t. In the early 4th century, Emperor Constantine – who is more famous for making Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire – introduced burning for forgers. In 10th-century England, under King Athelstan (927–939), the forger would lose a hand, but one of his Norman successors, Henry I (1100–1135), went one better. Suspecting his official mint workers of producing irregular coinage on the side and unhappy with the standard of the regular issues, he summoned them to a Christmas gathering at Winchester where he took the right hand and both testicles from each of them. Under Edward I and later kings, death by hanging was the usual punishment for men, with burning and strangulation reserved for women. Three unfortunate 16th century Edinburgh women suffered this appalling punishment, while in 1560 Robert Jacke, a Dundee merchant, was hanged and quartered merely for importing forgeries. Nineteen executions for counterfeiting took place in 1697 when Sir Isaac Newton was Warden of the Royal Mint.
